S-100A, Part Five - Section 21, Equipment & Accessories (single/group/s100aPrimaryQ)

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Section 21

• 21 - Equipment - Mk3 Wildfire Pump

Complete Course Table of Contents

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Section 21 - Equipment, MK3 Pump

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Below is a diagram of a standard MK3 High Pressure Fire Pump. This pump is manufactured by Wildland Fire, formerly, Wajax. There are some important points and safety issues with these and all pumps.

• Ensure correct fuel mix (24:1)
• Ensure WHMIS label is on fuel tank (tank is not shown below)
• Do not set pump in tall, dry grasses where hot muffler can start a fire. Be careful of not getting burned on the hot muffler
• Pump must have water (primed) before starting
• Ensure Over Rev Cut Out switch is pushed in and NEVER jam or tie this switch in the On (running) position

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You may find the above chart useful if you wish to calculate how long you can pump out of a limited water source.  (i.e. water truck or portable bladder)

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Temporary LINK to S100A Primary Fast Track Quiz (24)

If you are signed up for just the S-100A - STOP HERE and;

Click on the LINK above to go to the Quiz and your Certification

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FIRE ENTRAPMENT AVOIDANCE & SAFETY

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Safety          Safety           Safety

S-185 Fire Entrapment Avoidance & Safety 

Approved Online Course
(S-185 Hosted Primary Quiz)

Overview / Introduction

A FAST-TRACK COURSE for those who have completed this course multiple times

Course Fee - $38.00  (2026)  

Receive an instant downloadable certificate complete with a wallet card sized one which you may cut out and laminate. 

OVERVIEW

This course will teach the participant the basic principles of fire-line safety and in particular, those safety rules pertaining to avoiding a fire entrapment incident.  

It is expected that if all fire-line safety rules and regulations are followed, the need may never arise for a fire fighter to have to unexpectedly resort to “last ditch” efforts to save their or other’s, lives.

However, it is well documented where unexpected fire behaviour does occur.  In some of these documented cases, several lives have been lost.  

It is the goal of this course to ensure that even when the “unexpected” occurs, the fire fighter will know what to do and where to go and in the end, be safe and be alive.

Note: The British Columbia Forest Service – Protection Branch, no longer issue Fire Shelters to their fire crews.  Therefore, all fire fighting strategies factor this into the emergency; withdraw and escape procedures as there is no fire shelter available.

It should be noted and remembered that most fireline emergency incidents are a result of someone (or a whole crew) not following ALL of the safe work procedures.

Objective

Upon successful completion of this course the participant will know how to avoid fire entrapment and in the worst case scenario, will be taught how to survive fire entrapment.

1. The firefighter will be taught safety procedures and practices which will assist him/her to never be entrapped by wildland fire.
2. The firefighter will be taught what to do in the worst case scenario of being trapped by wildland fire.

SUGGESTED APPLICATION

We consider this e-learning course to be a very thorough and complete compilation of all the similar S-185 material and concepts (and updated with even more information) It can be delivered as a stand-alone course to an individual at home or at work, and it may be used by a wild land fire contractor or instructor as supplemental material for their pre-season, S-185 and Safety workshop or lesson plans.

The S-185 course is an annual requirement for any wildland firefighter employed by a contractor who is planning to work for the Ministry of Forests, Wildland Fire Management Branch in British Columbia, Canada

This course is targeted toward any person who may be involved professionally (their primary job description) fighting wildland fires.

The professional examination system is the same as is used by larger educational institutions.  Presents fair assessments and aides to prevent cheating.

Table of Contents

1.0 Course Objectives & Overview

2.0 Fire Entrapment Definition

entrapment

avoidance

3.0 Causes for Entrapment

fuel

weather

topography

human factor

4.0 How to Avoid Fire Entrapment

5.0 Fire Entrapment Survival

Short Quiz

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S-185 Fire Entrapment Avoidance & Safety

1.0 Introduction

SAFETY IS THE MOST IMPORTANT CONSIDERATION ON ANY FIRE

                      ________________________________

It should be noted and remembered that most fireline emergency incidents are a result of someone (or a whole crew) not following ALL of the safe work procedures.

                     ______________________________

This course will teach the participant the basic principles of fire-line safety and in particular, those safety rules pertaining to avoiding a fire entrapment incident.  

It is expected that if all fire-line safety rules and regulations are followed, the need may never arise for a fire fighter to have to unexpectedly resort to “last ditch” efforts to save their or others, lives.

However, it is well documented where unexpected fire behaviour does occur.  In some of these documented cases, several lives have been lost.  

It is the goal of this course to ensure that even when the “unexpected” occurs, the fire fighter will know what to do and where to go and in the end, be safe and alive.

Note: The British Columbia Forest Service – Protection Branch, no longer issue Fire Shelters to their fire crews.  Therefore, all fire fighting strategies factor this into the emergency; withdraw and escape procedures as there is no fire shelter available.

We recently read a statement in a Canadian Wildland Fire Training Manual that said that FIRE ENTRAPMENT WAS GOING TO HAPPEN EVENTUALLY TO EVERYONE AT ONE TIME OR ANOTHER.  I believe that statement is very very wrong!  The reason - think about it.  Fire entrapment means you are TRAPPED and if you are TRAPPED that means you may DIE!  Straight and simple.  One very common denominator with all fire entrapment fatalities is that the fire burned over their position.  Those very unfortunate and brave souls were trapped and unable to get away to a safe zone!  In our opinion, it seems the creator of that course has given up already.   That is like saying that every person who drives a vehicle is going to be in an accident!    Listen, firefighters, OF COURSE YOU NEVER WANT TO BE TRAPPED, AND THIS COURSE MAY HELP YOU CONSIDERABLY TO AVOID EVER BEING TRAPPED.  

Three sides of Fire Triangle

Heat

Oxygen

Fuel

Basic Fire Behaviour

1. Affected by topography
2. Affected by fuel type, spacing and density
3. Affected by weather conditions

• wind
• precipitation
• relative humidity
• temperature

1. Affected by daily weather patterns / daily (diurnal rhythms) upslope winds during daytime and downslope winds at night
2. Affected by historical weather patterns

• extended droughts (less than average rainfall)
• reduced snow-pack over previous winter(s)

Wind is typed in red because of all the weather related conditions, the sudden changes and movement of air (wind) can be the most critical to fire control attempts and to the fire fighter’s personal well being.  

Many fire entrapments are a result of sudden and unexpected winds and wind direction changes.

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Section 2.0 Fire Entrapment - Definition

Who is responsible?  EVERYONE!

Fire Entrapment 

This is a situation on the fireline when current fire behaviour prevents at least one firefighter from escaping an oncoming fire and from using a designated escape route and a safe zone.  Once entrapment occurs the life of at least one firefighter is in imminent danger and a fatality may be the end result.

Avoidance

Remember Kenny Roger’s song, “THE GAMBLER”

“...You got to know when to hold 'em, know when to fold 'em,

Know when to walk away and know when to run. ...”

“folding” is knowing when to cease operations on a particular portion of the fireline, or on the whole fire, and pull back to designated safe zones.

“tactical withdraw” (you are “walking away) is leaving the fireline without the need to declare an emergency and with no panic involved.  A quick, calm and orderly withdraw.

“evacuation” on the other hand is a scenario that is in the realm of an emergency (you may be running for your life) which could very quickly lead to an entrapment situation.  It is the goal of this course to enable the firefighter to learn and know  the difference and plan ahead so that only “tactical withdraws” are required.

Next Section 3.0

PREVIOUS SECTION 1.0

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Section 3.0 Causes for Wildfire Entrapment

3.0 Causes for Entrapment

There are many causes of fire entrapment incidents.  AND it is very common to be  a combination of one or more of these causesthat in the end, lead to a fire entrapment incident.

All firefighters know there are three main factors that influence how a fire burns (behaves)

These are;  Fuel, Weather & Topography

3.1  Hazardous Fuels

• dense, close spaced fuels; slash and blowdown areas; areas of lots of ladder fuels and logs and branches on the ground

• fine fuels such as grasses (especially on south facing slopes); pine needles and small branches on the ground (be aware of the “dead red” needles as a result of the Mountain Pine Beatle infestation.

• any unburned fuel between the fire edge and the fireline (one of the main reasons Burning-Off should always be considered and conducted if safe to do so.  (Almost always)

3.2  Hazardous Weather

• wind
• thunderstorms can bring sudden and erratic strong gusts of wind - downbursts.

• winds can suddenly change direction, changing a “flank” of a fire into the main “head” causing excessive smoke and heat for a firefighter
• watch for “fire whirls”  (“dust devils” or micro tornadoes) Smalls ones can develop into very large ones and lead to fire entrapment
• watch out for spot fires.  Burning embers can travel airborne over firefighters to ignite fires some distance away which can quickly lead to fire entrapment

• temperature
• rising temperatures will cause the fire to change behaviour - 
• rising temperatures make it more difficult for hard, physical work to be carried out

• relative humidity
• a lowering of relative humidity will greatly affect how the fuel burns.  A very low RH (< 10% will cause the fine fuels to almost “explode”)  

(I have personally seen fine, cured grass burn at a 3% RH and it behaved as though gasoline was poured on the grass! - and that was on flat terrain and with no wind!)

• precipitation (lack of moisture over a long term)

- the Drought Code (DC) of the weather indices, continues to indicate drying fuel deeper in the soil and into the “heavier” woody debris, as the summer season progresses.  This occurs almost all of the time, but is accelerated if there is a long term lack of moisture.  (low winter snow pack and or drought-like conditions

(during spring and summer)  

3.3  Hazardous Topography

• steep terrain
• rolling debris 
  
• watch below for new spots fires as a result of burning rolling debris - which can lead to fire entrapment
• more difficult to work and move around on
• uses more physical energy
• south facing slope (aspect)
• drier, warmer fulls
• usually lighter fuels
• narrow, box or box-like canyons 
• often no valid escape routes available
• gullies and ravines, chimneys
• often no valid escape routes available

______________________

Fires usually burn upslope much faster than a firefighter can run.

Fires WILL travel quickly upslope in draws, gullies, or ravines.

Never position yourself or crews directly above a fire.

Safe Zones must be downslope and “out to the sides” of the fire.

______________________

Several years ago a logger on the west coast of B.C. was attempting to escape a fire (caused by a spark from a haul-back block) by running upslope in a gully in an attempt to reach to a road where his truck was parked.  He was not successful. 

This fatal incident is the primary reason all forest workers in British Columbia must be trained in the basic fire fighting safety skills (2 day S-100 Course) AND renew this annually with the S-100A Course.

______________________

Not understanding any one of the above factors may lead to a fire entrapment incident.

There are still more factors that may lead to fire entrapment.

3.4  Human Factor  (during times of great stress we can only focus on about 7 factors)

       Your Mind

        Attitude - you must have a SAFETY FIRST ATTITUDE!

The attitudes below may kill!

These attitudes are often a result of inexperience and overinflated egos.  Being over aggressive is sometimes an attempt to cover for the lack of experience or knowledge required to safely carry out a job.

• "Rambo" or gung-ho approach - ("mother nature" will almost always win if push comes to shove)
• overconfident - not having a solid "situational awareness" - no idea as to how quickly a rank 1, small fire, can transition into a potentially fatal fire entrapment situation.
• horseplay - stay focused and sharp! (save your energy and desire to "play" for another time ... and place ... or find another job!)
• fear - can lead to very poor decisions and panic (believe in and trust your safety and emergency procedures plans and skills)

Bad Supervision

All the above may lead to very poor supervision

- this can be a tough one to deal with

- may be trying to “score points” for a promotion

• may try to be know-it-all and talk “down” to crew 

  - lack of respect  toward his / her crew

- may have a “oh don’t be a wimp”  mind set                          

• we’ll do er, no matter what approach
• “green” inexperienced
• “in over their head” but not admitting it
• may be afraid thus fear based decisions (not burning off is a classic example that is occurring more and more)

These type of supervisors usually don’t last long in the system - but ...

______________________________

I can recall many many times (too many) when there were poor supervisors on the fireline.  In my earlier years as a firefighter it WAS often difficult to deal with.  In later years as an Incident Commander and staff person, it was much easier, and I found it rewarding to be able to take an individual aside and work with them (time and circumstances permitting) to help change a poor supervisor into a good one

________________________________

lack of knowledge

• you must be properly trained in all aspects of your expected work load
• you must know where you are working and what is around you (situational awareness)  
• you should have a map of the area
• if you are unsure or don’t know - ASK  That is part of the “C” in LAACES.  Communication.
• you should not do a task if you have not been trained for it

lack of experience

• panic / fear
• you will gain experience over time - listen and learn

________________________

           Your Body

• fatigue (a tired worker is a liability to everyone)
  

       - short term - you must get a good sleep after each shift

     - long term - (days and weeks especially with rigorous and long work hours) can have devastating and fatal impacts on yourself and or your crews.  Sleep deprivation is accumulative and can lead to poor decisions, physical accidents and illness

• illness - illness can impede physical and mental abilities -   stay home or in camp

heat exhaustion

heat stroke

______________________________________

3.5  "Hardware"

Motor Vehicle

• accident
• breakdown
• civilian accident
• injury

Equipment - Not vehicle or heavy equipment

• PPE - Personal Protective Equipment

       -  hard hat (date and style compliant)

       -  gloves

       -  cotton, wool, or Nomex clothing (it is normal for fire 

crews  to be required to wear Nomex)

       -  sturdy, high topped leather boots with “Vibram” type soles

       -  no steel toes (check with your jurisdiction working in)

       -  no contact lenses

       -  safety goggles

___________________________

Interface Fire Zones

There are some "special" precautions and considerations when working in or near communities.

• bridges or cattle guards that may burn and trap crews
• downed power lines between the fire crews and escape zones
• motor vehicle accidents between the fire crews and escape zones
• remains of burning structures that have collapsed across a road, trapping blocking the crews from getting back to their escape zones
• large groups of civilians blocking roads and in desperate need of help
• unknown fuels in buildings, (sheds, garages, factories, etc.) If encountered

-  stay upwind, do not breath the smoke, move away but don’t go into low areas

-  warn other crew and civilians 

-  prevent entry by other persons

-  communicate this situation to your supervisor

-  inadequate training

-  improper safety equipment

• propane and or natural gas issues
• burning vehicles, RVs
• Hydrogen Sulphide Gas - oil & gas industry

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Section 4.0 Wildfire Entrapment Avoidance

Wildfire Entrapment Avoidance

Pre-Work Crew Safety Briefing

Mandatory 

• chain of command - who is the I.C.

• discuss fireline hazards
• what is the current and expected weather
• what is the current and expected fire behaviour
• overall strategy for the day
• crew tasks for the day - goals and expectations
• designated first aid - where located and call signs
• escape routes - location
• expected air support for the day
• is this an Interface Fire - what special precautions
• communication system and call signs (conduct radio checks before leaving office and again before leaving staging area
• individual work assignments for the day
• Lookouts - who, where, call signs
• medical emergency plan and procedures (roll of each crew person)
• LAACES - see below

L.A.A.C.E.S.

Lookout

Most fires should have an experienced person posted as a lookout to watch over the overall fire behaviour and to report fire behaviour changes immediately

• posted if there is any hint of difficult fire behaviour
• must be experienced
• must have effective means of communication
• must know where crews are working
• must know where all escape routes are
• must have maps, weather kit, (often not readily available), watch, compass
• must know when to advise of serious potential fire behaviour - early, not too late 

Anchor point

This is a designated point along the fireline chosen as the place where the initial attack will begin.  All safety hazards have been assessed and escape routes (minimum of two) have been established)

Awareness (situational)

Each person on the fireline must be aware of their surroundings at all times.  (See Lookout)

Also, look up in the sky often.  The cloud pattern can tell you a huge “story” regarding winds and weather changes approaching

The first established escape routes, over time (one or two hours or days) may no longer be valid for you.  These could now be too far away to be effective or they may have been burned over and no longer usable.

Be aware of danger trees

Be aware of your fellow workers and how they may be doing.  Is someone showing signs of heat exhaustion?

Communication

You must ensure the technical (radios, cell phones, etc.) are working well and that you can transmit and receive messages wherever you are working along the fireline.

You must also communicate with your fellow crew persons and supervisors about all events that you see happening in your area.

A very important aspect of communication is also keeping detailed notes AND to be listening for and noting any weather reports, etc.

Escape Routes

You must have and know where at least two escape routes are located.  You must know how long it will take at a brisk walking speed, how long it will take to follow those escape routes to safe zones.

That time and more must be allowed for when deciding upon a Tactical Withdraw.

Escape Routes must;

• be brushed, cleared out
• must orient, downward, outward and away from fire
• must not lead upward above the fire
• must be timed
• must allow fire crews to easily and quickly reach a safe zone
• must be identified on the ground and on fire maps
• must be discussed with all fire personnel

Safety Zones

These must be established prior to any commencement of work on the fire.  These must be large enough to protect the firefighters from not only the actual flame but from the radiant heat.

Safety Zones;

• must be realistic in size and location
• must be safe from rolling debris and falling trees
• must not be in or near a gully or "saddle"
• below and away from the fire
• “in the black” is not considered an established Safe Zone (“in the black” may become a temporary “safe zone” in an emergency)
• safety zones must be large enough to ensure fire crews can be at least 4 times the distance away from the fire as the height of the expected flames at the edge of the zone.  (i.e. expected flame height of 30 feet / 10 metres means 120 feet / 40 metres AND if the fire may burn on all sides of the safety zone at the same time ... a much larger zone will be required 

CAVES SHALL NEVER BE CONSIDERED A SAFE LOCATION (SUFFOCATION MAY OCCUR - THIS IS ONLY TOO WELL DOCUMENTED IN HISTORY)

____________________________________________________

10 Standard Firefighting Orders

1. Fire Weather - always keep informed of the current and expected Fire Weather
2. Fire Behaviour - always know what the fire behaviour is.  Use personal observation as well as Lookouts and reports from other crew persons, etc.
3. Tactics - base all tactics on current and more importantly, expected fire weather and fire behaviour
4. Escape Routes - there must always be a minimum of two valid escape routes at each fire.  Know where they are.  
5. Lookout - almost all fires require a Lookout to be posted if fire behaviour appears to warrant it.
6. Stay Alert, Calm, and Think clearly, Be decisive - but remain flexible to unexpected events
7. Communications must be established and maintained
8. Instructions must be very clear and understood - ask questions to confirm this
9. Control - all crew persons, crews, and resources must be monitored and kept in control at all times
10. Aggressive but always SAFETY FIRST action

____________________________________________________

“WATCH OUT” 

(very similar but another way to remember safety rules)

W-A-T-C-H - O-U-T slogan for fire line safety.

W - weather dominates fire behaviour
A - action is based on what the fire is doing
T - try out at least two escape routes
C - communications, keep them clear and simple
H - hazards such as snags, flash fuels and dangerous terrain must be observed

O - observe changes in the weather
U - understand your instructions
T - think clearly, stay alert and keep calm at all times

SITUATIONAL AWARENESS

Maintain At All Times

Here are some basic but very important indicators to watch for which will “tell” you the fire behaviour is intensifying;

• NOISE OF FIRE IS GETTING LOUDER
• SMOKE IS CHANGING COLOUR FROM BLUISH / WHITE TO GREY TO BLACK
• SMOKE THAT WAS “LAYING” IN OR PARTIALLY IN THE CANOPY IS NOW THINNING AND DISSIPATING (air mass above the fire is heating up - or winds are increasing) (the Lookout should be seeing the smoke rising above the canopy and becoming thicker)
• SMOKE IS CURLING BACK DOWN TO THE SURFACE SOME DISTANCE AWAY FROM THE FIRE EDGE (Lookout should be seeing this and communicating this information)
• FIRE WHIRLS / DUST DEVILS ARE FORMING REGULARLY
• TREES ARE BEGINNING TO CANDLE / TORCH IN MULTIPLE LOCATIONS
• CLOUDS ABOVE ARE STREAKY (high winds aloft which may “touch down” on your fire)
• TIME OF DAY - (some valleys and canyons have winds that increase quickly and greatly at very predictable times every day during the summer) (these are the warmer, upslope winds that travel up river valleys during the day - and down at night when it is cooler)
• GLACIERS - (provide a constant outflow of air down valleys - directly above these cooler downslope winds may be warmer, upslope winds - giving the fire a varied and somewhat unpredictable pattern of winds)

Four Common Denominators of Deadly Fire Entrapment Incidents

1. Small Fires or on smaller sections of big fires
2. Weather Event
3. Change of Topography
4. Light / Fine / Flash Fuels

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Section 5.0 Wildfire Entrapment Survival

(Probable Life Threatening “Last Resort” Situation)

(you are now in an emergency situation - it is assumed you are unable to use an established escape route or you become trapped while on an escape route heading to a Safety Zone)

On the fireline

You are now looking for an Emergency Survival Zone!

• stay together
• follow instructions
• communicate situation to incident command centre
• consider requesting for air support
• take tools and packs (unless ordered to leave them) (in an extreme emergency you may be able to travel considerably faster if you do drop your tools and pack)
• do not panic
• do not run (unless in extreme emergency) (if you twist an ankle or worse, your situation may quickly become very dire)
• do not try to outrun the fire - especially going up hill
• consider running back into the “black” burned area if the fuel is not too thick and fire burning too hot in that area
• consider running directly through the flames is they are low and not too wide a fire front - fine fuels may present an opportunity (Understand this is a dangerous action but dangerous situations sometimes require dangerous actions)
• travel crouched, stay low, protect airway (heat rises) (if you inhale a breath of superheated air / smoke you will immediately drop to the ground and will be unable to move or stop coughing / choking - this is from actual personal experience)
• if you have to stop and “defend”, protect your airway
• get down in a hollow and dig / scoop out a depression for your nose to get down into - there is usually relatively cooler and fresher air inches above the surface of the ground

• protect exposed skin with clothing, even chunks of bark held in place like a “shield”
• try to find a large area with light fuel or free of fuel

• rocky outcroppings, rock slide areas, cat guards, swamp/wet ground, deciduous stand of trees, cultivated field, water, into the “black” if it is not too hot  
• a fuel free hollow /depression is good as this will usually have more cool, fresher air and protect you from the intense radiant 
• heat behind large boulders, even logs or trees (be aware the flames may wrap around these objects
• lay face down, scoop out a “hollow” for your nose, if your feet face the oncoming fire that keeps your head and airway more protected
• hold your arms over your head, ears and face
• if possible, wet your clothing
• keep your overall body exposure to the fire front to a minimum

Go to the nearest Safety Zone and communicate location to supervisors and IC

Stay there until it is safe to move back to main staging area (or fireline if so ordered - not a usual procedure as a crew incident briefing should be conducted)

Vehicle  (not heavy equipment)

If you make it to your vehicle and decide to drive out to safety, you must consider the following;

Using Vehicle to escape

• is the “escape” road still passable?
• are there bridges that may burn before you reach them?
• might the road lead to worse entrapment potential?
• turn on your lights
• do NOT drive at “crazy” speeds - a vehicle accident will only severely lead to compounding the situation

Deciding to not drive vehicle to escape

• you may be able to shelter inside the cab for a very short time   (depending upon the fuel and topography around you)
• you may have a better survival chance by “hunkering down” beside the vehicle on the “off side” to the fire front
• lay in the ditch on the off side of the fire front, beside the vehicle 
• always keep an eye on the vehicle because if and when it ignites you will now be seriously threatened by the potential of an explosion (but that does not always occur)
• a burning vehicle and especially burning tires will force you to move away from it
• avoid breathing any smoke from a burning vehicle due to the high potential toxic gasses involved
• do not shelter under a vehicle
• do not shelter in or at the opening of a culvert (heat and smoke will travel in it - similar to not sheltering in a cave

Heavy Equipment  - (bulldozer, loaders, excavators)

• try to create a large, fuel free zone to shelter in
• try to dig a depression to shelter in
• use the stationary equipment similar as a large boulder to shelter behind

Building

• a building may be a good choice to shelter during an emergency entrapment
• the fire front will usually have been passed even if the structure does ignite
• close all windows and get curtains away from them
• as soon as the main fire front passes, and it is considered cool enough, leave the building
• you CAN be in burning building (burning on the outside walls and roof) for a short time  (this author has experienced that situation - the inside was burning by the time we exited but we were fine and sustained no injuries) 
• be very very cautions about taking shelter in garages and outbuildings that may contain gasoline or other hazardous material
• do not take shelter in any structure that is in the proximity of a propane tank

Fire Line Safety Recap

Safety on any work site begins with an attitude.  … and this attitude must be that safety is number one.  In the case of a wildland fire fighter, safety is first and controlling and putting out the fire is always a lesser consideration.  

Fire fighters are responsible for their own safety and for the safety of their fellow workers.  Whenever a fire fighter is injured, the whole fire attack plan may have to be reconsidered and changed.  This could be to the extent of pulling all crews from fire suppression activities until the medical emergency incident is over. 

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